Strategic alignment

Strategic alignment Chapter 1: Introduction 12 Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Overview This chapter introduces the research background and context for this investigation. An introduction to strategic alignment is presented with the aim of establishing the context of this research, followed by an explanation of the importance of business strategy and Information Technology (IT) and the uniqueness of organizational culture in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). In addition, the knowledge gap and research methodology were explained. In light of these arguments the aims and objectives are presented together with an outline of the thesis structure. 1.2 Research Background For the last two decades the relevance of alignment between business and IT strategies has continuously grown and remains a top priority for academics and practitioners. Research suggests that aligning business and IT strategies has a positive effect on organisational performance (Teo and King, 1996; Reich and Benbasat, 2000; Chan et al., 2006). The annual survey on top management concerns by the Society for Information Management (www.simnet.org) however ranked ‘IT and Business alignment as the No. 1 concern for four years in a row (Society of Information Management, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006). In last years survey, alignment lost its doubtful honor as the ‘top concern to drop to only the second place on the list (Society of Information Management, 2007). But it came back in 2008 and regained the No.1 spot as the top concern. Moreover, the value of IT has been related to strategic alignment (Tallon and Kraemer, 2003). They found that organisations with strategic goals for IT showed higher levels of strategic alignment and, as a consequence, the perception of IT business value was higher. However, organisations that have developed IT strategies often fail to deliver IT business value, despite having integrated their business and IT strategies. This suggests business-IT strategy is necessary but not sufficient to deliver business value from IT investments (Peppard et al., 2000; Benbya and McKelvey, 2006). Strategic alignment research has extensively discussed the coordination between business and IT strategy (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993; Reich and Benbasat, 2000; Kearns and Sabherwal, 2007). As strategic alignment has become embedded in the strategic management process, a closer relationship between IT and business managers is required to establish a two-way commitment that enables managers in both IT and business domains to prioritise IT projects that will support the business strategy (Luftman et al., 1999). Figure (1) summarizes the Information System/Business relationship which can be described as ‘Interdependent; where any changes in the IS (Software, Hardware, Database and Telecommunication devices will have an impact on the Business and vice versa; any change in the business (Strategy, Rules and Procedures) will have its impact on the Information Systems function of the organization [2]. Figure 1: The interdependence between organizations and information systems (Laudon Laudon, 2006) This commitment, however, has been difficult to achieve at strategic level in organisations and consequently difficult to transmit to lower levels within organisations (Lycett et al., 2004; Srivannaboom, 2006). Additionally, the frequent failure of IT projects has reduced the trust of senior managers in IT investments and their business value (Peppard et al., 2000; Taylor, 2000; Hartman and Ashrafi, 2004). When an IT strategy is conceived at strategic level, it may be aligned with company goals; however, as it moves down through the lower levels of an organisation to be implemented, the original objectives for which the strategy was conceived can be lost. Relationships between business and IT implementers are not always close and IT staff tends to be more concerned with technical issues. Business and IT also need a close relationship at implementation level to ensure the project goals are well communicated and understood (Lederer and Salmela, 1996; Campbell et al., 2005). The interaction between information technology and organizations is influenced by many mediating factors, including the organizations structure, standard operating procedures, politics, culture, surrounding environment, and management decisions as shown in figure (2). and information Technology (Laudon Laudon, 2006) Therefore the motivation behind this research is to develop a model that depicts the dynamic interrelationships between the factors affecting strategic alignment taking into consideration the organizational culture (OC) in Saudi organisations. OC and strategy Connie Curran, (2002) a researcher and practitioner in the healthcare sector, wrote â€Å"Culture eats strategy for lunch every time†. In this simple statement she has eloquently summarized one of the strongest themes in the literature on strategy implementation, which is that it doesnt matter how wonderful your organizations strategy is, if its culture does not support it, the strategy will not be realized even if the goals and infrastructure are aligned. Aligning organizational culture to strategy accelerates strategy execution. Organizational culture includes the highly influential sets of norms, values, assumptions, beliefs and behaviors which influence the selection, design and implementation of strategic initiatives, impacting growth and operational strategies. Misaligned cultures create drag that impairs the performance of the organizations ‘engines for growth, hobbling strategies from being achieving to their full potential. OC and IT It is a common statement that we are now living in an era of rapid technology development. The adoption and implementation of new technologies, in many cases, is imperative not only to improve productivity, efficiency or to cater to new demand and requirements but also to ensure the survival of the business itself. ‘The introduction of any new technology into an occupation, organisation, or society can be seen as a cultural change problem (Schein 1989). The success or failure of integrating a new technology in an organisation is, to a large degree, dependent on its ability to adjust or change its culture. The creation and/or existence of a certain cultural environment may be essential to ensure the successful implementation of a new technology. The new technology once has been put in use in an organisation, in turn, will dictate further changes in the organisations culture. Many current examples can be found in relation to the areas of automation and information technology. 1.6 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) The culture of Saudi Arabia is a rich one that has been shaped by its Islamic heritage, its historical role as an ancient trade center, and its Bedouin traditions. Saudi Arabia is considered a very high context culture, which means that the message people are trying to convey often relies heavily on other communicative cues such as body language and eye-contact rather than direct words. Saudi traditions are rooted in Islamic teachings and Arab customs, which Saudis learn about at an early age from their families and in schools. Arab traditions also play an important role in Saudi life. These age-old traditions have evolved over the millennia and are highly regarded. They include generosity and hospitality, which every Saudi family offers to strangers, friends, and family [50]. One of the most important features of the Saudi culture is the segregation of the sexes. Segregation, which means not permit women to mix with unrelated men. Also Shyness is another important characteristic that people should uphold. The other important feature in the Saudi culture is family ties, where Muslim is expected to keep contact with his relatives [51]. Respect and friendship are values that are held very highly by the Saudi people, business setting, favors based on mutual benefit and trust are ways of enhancing these cultural values. Due to the personal nature of business in Saudi Arabia, family influence and personal connections often take precedence over other governing factors [52]. Saudi Arabia is behind in the area of IT, which could be contributed to several factors including Computer illiteracy, lack of government incentives to attract businesses, the absence of adequate infrastructure to support industry, poor enforcement of intellectual property and copy right laws, and lack of resources [53]. 1.7 Knowledge Gap Based on the above, and through screening some of the existing strategic alignment models in the literature review, the researcher figured out that to achieve such an alignment there is a need to consider and integrate the following points: Most of staff, if not all, is unaware of business goals and objectives, especially in the environment of Saudi Arabia. Important technical investments decisions are made by the IT manager alone. No relationship exists (Gap) between Business strategy and IT strategy. A lot of factors are not taken into consideration when forming strategic alignment, such as Structure, Culture, politics, and others. Strategic alignment models discussed only top management level and discarded other levels. Previous strategic alignment models are hard to be understood and implemented in reality. The models discussed in the literature review may have achieved one or two of the above six points, however, there is no existing model that has achieved the above six points altogether. Based on the above, the researcher has selected Strategic Alignment as a starting and a centre area of research that he is building on to fulfill the other points mentioned. The model that the researcher is aiming to establish differs from the existing ones in that it will meet the requirements and challenges of the Saudi environment taking into consideration the 6 above points. 1.8 Research Aims Significance To bridge the gap between Business Strategy and Information Technology Strategy through developing and designing a simple Strategic Alignment Model, that includes the essence of the major research works in addition to other strategic alignment theories available To highlight the role of socio-cultural aspects as a critical success factor for successful IT implementation, which were not taken into consideration in the past To measure the contribution of such a model to business performance. To encourage Saudi Firms to use such a model to gain competitive competition. To reduce the associated costs of implementing Information Systems in Organization 1.9 Research methods The researcher has used the mixed research methodology. Mixed research involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or paradigm characteristics within a stage of the study or across two of the stages of the research process. It collects data either sequentially of simultaneously to best understand research problems [16]. Advantages of using mixed research includes: the major goal for researcher who design and conduct mixed research is to follow the fundamental principle of mixed research, in other words, the researcher should mix quantitative and qualitative research methods, procedures, and paradigm characteristics in a way that the resulting mixture or combination has complementary strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses. When different approaches are used to focus on the same phenomenon, while providing the same result, is a strong evidence for the result. Other important reason for doing mixed research are to complement one set of results with another, to expand a set of results, or to discover something that would have been missed if only a quantitative or a qualitative approach had been used[17]. 1.9.1 Quantitative Method One of the most widely used research techniques can be defined as collecting data through written questions [17]. There are a number of different ways in which questionnaires can be administered; for example: posted to the intended respondents or administered over the telephone or face-to-face. A questionnaire design provides a quantitative description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. From sample results, the researcher generalizes or makes claims about a population [18]. 1.9.2 Qualitative Method Interviews are considered to be the main tool of the qualitative researcher for data collection [18]. Additionally, since the interpretive stance is also being followed, interviews are viewed to be the main and appropriate source from where data has been collected. According to Walsham, interviews allow the best access to the interpretations that the participants have regarding the actions and events, which have or are taking place and the views and aspirations of themselves and other participants. An added benefit is that it allows researchers to step back and examine the interpretations of their fellow participants in some detail, and this is an advantage that other methods may not allow [18]. There are several types of interviews possible for use, structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews. In this study the semi-structured interview type was used due to different reasons. The semi-structured interview lies somewhere in between the other two types. It allows the interviewer to explore, probe and ask questions within a subject area less freely than the unstructured interview and with more freedom in sequencing of questions and timing for each question than the structured type. It allows the interviewer to explore more ideas and make use of unexpected and unforeseen information as it revealed. In addition, this study is a limited time study and since the timing required in conducting semi-structured interview is less than that required from the unstructured type, this type was chosen. To make the interview proceed smoothly, an Interview Guide was designed. A participation information sheet was also designed to familiarise the participants with the research purpose and to assure them of anonymity and confidentiality. Before conducting the semi-structured interview, each participant was asked to fill and sign a consent form with a copy kept with him/her. See Appendix F and G for the (Interview Guide, Invitation letter, Participation Information Sheet, and Consent Form). 24 interviews were conducted within the four organizations. The collected data from the interviews were converted into a quantitative format (frequencies) using content analysis method, where the collected data were summarized on a summary sheet. Then it was categorized to meet the research objectives, which was then displayed on a table. Rating for the results was calculated using Microsoft office Excel spreadsheet. 1.9.3 Secondary Data In order to gain a richer picture of Strategic Alignment concepts, a literature survey was conducted from published books, articles, journals, etc. All data from the primary case study (questionnaires and interviews), secondary case studies and documents were combined and linked together to give the base for designing the Strategic Alignment Model. 1.9.4 Data analysis Data gathered was analyzed through frequency distributions. These have given way to reviewing the data categories and the number of referrals in each category. With relation to data analysis, the indicators that were used in evaluating the study include the age of the respondent; the social status; the educational attainment of the respondents; the occupation of the respondents and their length of stay in the company they belong to [19]. The research has involved 4 large organizations, SABB (Saudi British Bank), Saudi Airlines, AL-Marai, and AlTawniah, where interviews have been conducted with business managers to have a clear idea about the companys business strategy. Also, other interviews took place with IT directors to investigate about the IT strategy and its relationship with the business strategy. In addition,2 sets of questionnaires were distributed among different levels of the organizations to come up with the types of organizational culture and the use of Information technology in those organizations. At the end, data were collected and analyzed through using SPSS software and content analysis. Figure depicts the various steps that compromised the research framework 1.10 Expected Research Outcomes The results from this research are anticipated to be of great help to top managers, strategic planners, IT managers, and other work force in Saudi environment, and will contribute to the following factors: Increasing the awareness of Strategic Alignment Concept and its importance. Showing the importance of the use of Information Technology in organizations Identifying the organizational culture as a major factor of achieving strategic alignment. Encouraging decision makers and top management to apply and implement strategic alignment throughout the organization. Highlighting the weaknesses of previous strategic alignment models and the lessons learned, which would help other researchers for future work 1.11 Indicative Thesis Structure The thesis will contain nine chapters: Chapter 1: Introduction: Presents an overview about the research subject. It shows the importance of strategic alignment in all sectors, followed by bridging the gap between business strategy and IT strategy, and the factors that affect strategic alignment, including the organizational culture in Saudi Arabia. The research aims and significance then was explained followed by a brief discussion of the research methodology, research framework, then prospected research contribution was mentioned. Chapter 2: Literature Review: Provides the literature review for this research. It begins with explaining Business strategy, Business planning and its tools, followed by a discussion of IT strategy, IT planning, and its tools. Then a discussion of strategic alignment was presented. And ended with an overview of previous strategic alignment models. Chapter 3: Research design and methodology: The chapter details the research process adopted and continues with an explanation of the data collection and data analysis methods employed by the researcher including justification for the approach and methods. The detailed questionnaire and interviews preparation and use process is described, followed by the reliability and validity tests. There is reasoning provided in this chapter for the use of data interpretation techniques and softwares like the SPSS Content analysis. Chapter 4: Selection of Strategic Alignment Model Parameters: Presents the organizational culture parameters selected by the researcher, the validity of this selection, and their relationship with the two main components of strategic alignment (Business strategy IT strategy) Chapter 5: Information Technology Use Questionnaires Analysis: This chapter introduces findings from a survey of 62 Information Technology (IT) managers to establish general perceptions of added value(s) of IT investments in Saudi organizations. Chapter 6: Organizational Culture Impact Questionnaires Analysis: Discusses and examines the data collected through the questionnaires from 400 staff in the selected Saudi firms, to identify the importance of organizational culture in strategic alignment. Chapter 7: Interviews Analysis: Talks about and analyses the data collected through the interviews in the 4 Saudi firms where 12 Business managers and 12 IT managers were approached. The chapter ended with an interviews summary and conclusions. Chapter 8: Hypothesis Formulating: Chapter 8 presents and discusses the research hypotheses. Dependent and independent variables were discussed in details. The chapter ended with a detail visual model showing the predicted relationship between dependent and independent variables Chapter 9: Conclusion and Recommendations: Proposes the new strategic alignment model, and concludes the study and gives recommendations and future directions. The Effect of OC on Strategic alignment in Saudi Firms Hatem Tamimi

Baz luhrmann’s interpretation of Romeo and Juliet Essay

Shakespeare uses a prologue at the start of his play for a number of reasons. Firstly, it acts as an introduction to the story. We learn about the rivalry between the two families, †Ancient Grudge† it also makes clear that it is a tragic story of two †star – cross’d lovers † who are destined to die because of their families hatred. The prologue is like the opening to a film because both need to grab your attention. The setting of Baz Luhrmann’s ‘Romeo and Juliet’ is in the west coast of America, in a setting, which he calls Verona Beach. However this is not true as the beach’s real name is Venice Beach but the reason why he uses this is because it reminds everyone where William Shakespeare actually set the play, he set the play in Verona so by changing the name he has made quite a remarkable thing by making sure everyone knows where it is set. The other reasons why he filmed ‘Romeo and Juliet’ in the west coast of America is because Los Angeles is a big city just like Verona and because there is also a lot of violence and gangs in Los Angeles just like Verona. The types of film Baz Luhrmann used in the prologue are TV news style footage showing you how much of their fighting is causing their city to be more violent, as well as this they are trying to say that what is happening between the Montague’s and the Capulet’s has an effect on the rest of the city. By doing the prologue, as TV news footage is a clever thing to do, as it is an original idea and by doing it in this way it will keep the audience hooked to the rest of the movie. Another reason why Baz Luhrmann used TV news footage is because it shows the violence in Verona. When the camera shakes, the jumpy effect makes you think the violence is real and also is very dangerous. This makes the audience hooked to the movie. The director uses a voice over to read out the prologue. The actor reading the prologue played the priest. The priest Friar Lawrence is appropriate because he knows both sides of the story. His voice is deep, sorrowful and sad. His tone of voice is meant to be serious so everyone will be influenced by what he says about the circumstances surrounding the storyline and take him seriously. Also by making the priest read the prologue it shows that he is aware of the situation surrounding both the families and the effect it has on the rest of the city and the seriousness of the situation. Not only did they use a voice over, they used captions with bold letters and people shouting to grab our attention. This keeps us hooked and willing to watch the rest of the movie. He says this in a deep American accent, although as we know, he is not really an American but an Englishman. Luhrmann uses some interesting shots in the opening sequences, such as close-ups, because it is important as it shows their facial expression and the body language used, making it more realistic and interesting, thereby attaining the interest of the audience. He also uses long shots (establishing shots) to show the whole city from the helicopter as it gives an overall view of what is happening in the city as a whole, focusing your attention to different parts of the city. He uses medium shots because it is ideal for introducing characters as it concentrates on how they appear on first sight and the impact they have on the audience. He uses high angle shots so that you can see what is going on like a birds eye view, showing a character in proportion and comparison to the rest of the city. He also zooms into the statue of Christ and the two buildings to show how important they are and to make them stand out from the rest of the city, by attracting the attention of the audience and thereby making them focus on the zoomed objects, giving them the utmost importance. He also uses fades and cuts. Fades are when the scene goes black. Fades are to close the scene and go on to another part of the story. Cuts are used to show what may be happening in another part of the story, maybe at the same time of the scene that has just been showed. He also uses freeze frames. One example of a freeze frame was in the scene of the Montague boys, when the characters are still for some time. He also uses wipes to speed up the scenes from the film. The reasons he used these effects could be because they make the story faster and more intense, and tries to show how different the atmosphere in certain scenes are. Baz Luhrmann used operatic and church music as well as dramatic and religious music, because they all tie in with ideas of fate etc. This music is ancient like the families and the story. When the Montague boys come they have different music. They use rap style music to show that they are young and modern and part of a gang. Luhrmann uses different sound effects like gunshots, fires, helicopters, brakes and loud music when they show the Montague boys. The reason why he uses these is because this is meant to be a tense city with a lot of violence and by showing it like this he is to make the audience feel like it still happens in modern times. The director uses images and symbols to focus on emphasizing peace and religion. He uses a statue of Christ because it shows everyone what it represents. The statue represents peace and refers to the Catholic religion. By doing this, they are trying to make the viewer think that Verona needs peace. He also emphasizes on the two towers, because they show the rivalry between Montague and Capulet and the wealth of the families. It also represents both families having a say about what happens in the city. He also uses fire as a symbol, as fire represents danger, death and hell. Everything that is happening in Verona is due to the families. He also uses passion as a symbol, because as we know, passion is the theme of the story throughout as both ‘Romeo and Juliet’ are madly in love. In conclusion, it is clear to see that the director is trying to open the play up to a more modern audience such as teenagers. He has made it appealing to the young target audience by hiring young attractive actors to play Romeo and Juliet. He also uses flashy equipment such as guns and cars to make the story appear more modern and to try to attract the young audience. He also uses different music to show the personality, e. g. when the Montague boys come, the music changes to rap music, as they are young and modern. Lurhmann also uses different styles like exciting visual tricks to attract their attention.

Christopher Columbus Essay

Around the time Christopher Columbus discovered the New World, Europe was undergoing incredible changes. The Holy Inquisition was an example of efforts by the Catholic faithful to spread and strengthen their faith at the expense of Islam. In Spanish cities like Cordoba and Barcelona, hundreds of Jews and Muslims were burned as heretics for not adhering to the faith (Kamen 17). Religious strife also came about in England; Protestants and Catholics were often at odds with each other’s political and religious views. In the case of the Netherlands, fidelity to Protestant beliefs proved a potent rallying cry and unifying factor in the fight to gain independence from the Spanish Crown. All these regrettable contexts of religious intolerance would heavily influence the Europeans when they eventually made it to the New World. The Spanish were especially virulent in their religious zeal. Virtually every Conquistador was followed by missionaries who went far and wide to convert the newly-conquered â€Å"heathens†. Not only were the missionaries very good at converting the natives, they were also very effective at destroying the native culture and tribal history. The shamans and medicine men of the tribes were killed off mercilessly and with them died the knowledge of the tribes’ oral histories. Those tribes advanced enough to have written histories suffered the pain of having these burned or destroyed by the missionaries. All this was done to make the tribes more docile; without traditions to guide them, they had only the missionaries to turn to. Only in Plymouth, where the English pilgrims traveled to escape persecution, were the Europeans tolerant of the natives and even then, only while they did not yet obstruct the settlers’ needs. What were some of the similarities and differences among the colonial governments of the New World? The Spanish colonial government was an interplay of a powerful theocracy nominally commanded by the Pope and the Catholic Kings of Spain. For example, the Viceroy of Mexico and the Archbishop were often careful not to step on each other prerogatives. The Viceroy was supposed to send Conquistadors to heathen lands in order to pacify areas where missionaries could be deployed to convert them into productive Christians (Hand Book of Texas Online). This ideal set-up is often disturbed by arguments about Spanish soldiers interfering with Missions or not being there at all to protect the Friar. Other disagreements occurred over allocation of the native population. The Viceroy needed people to work the silver mines while Friars wanted them to man missions which were often located at the frontiers where few Spanish settlers would go. English colonial governance had no such burden. The King of England was also the head of the Church of England. Unlike Spanish colonial enterprises, the English colonies were commercial affairs out to exploit the wealth of the New World and provide new lands for English settlers. As such, the colonists who came were permanent settlers who were lured to the New World by freedom and land. The colonies were also separate from each other as opposed to the centralized government that Mexico City’s Viceroy imposed upon all of New Spain. What were the attitudes of each of the European nations toward their North American colonial subjects and the Native Americans living within their borders, and how were these attitudes reflected in their treatment of those subjects? The Spanish treated the Native Americans as heathens who required saving (but not before their gold had been taken, of course) (Catholic Encylopedia Miguel Hidalgo Biograph). Hence, the conquistadors mercilessly invaded Native American territory and took whatever they wanted. For example, the Aztec and Inca empires were destroyed in Spain’s quest for silver and gold . Afterwards, the survivors were converted to Christianity and turned into virtual slaves for the Spanish Empire. The haughty Spaniards believed that Peninsulares or those born in Spain were the superior social class; beneath them were increasingly undesirable or lowly classes with the bottom being the native Americans and Blacks. This attitude was so heavy-handed that Native Americans were often disenfranchised because they were treated as second-class citizens in their own land. The French, for their part, were also after conversion of the Native Americans. Unlike the Spanish, they chose to live in the Native American Villages instead of seeking to subjugate. In this sense, their treatment of Native Americans was better but the French still held themselves to be superior by virtue of their white skin. Both the French and the English saw the Natives as useful to their colonization efforts given how few they were versus the great number of Indians. The book, Last of the Mohicans, is an example of how Natives were co-opted by the rival powers for their purposes. How did Britain’s treatment of its North American colonies evolve from the Seven Years’ War to the American Revolution? The British Empire became the dominant colonial power in North America at the end of the Seven Years’ War. (Corbett 77) Not only did it control vast tracts of lands in the Carolinas, Virginia and Massachusetts, it now included Canada in its possessions. However, the great economic costs of defeating her rivals would lead to repressive taxes imposed upon the American colonies, repressions that would soon lead to revolution. The British believed that the colonies should be taxed to pay for the expenses incurred during the war; after all the war was mostly fought on colonial soil. The colonists resented this taxation and were soon up in arms. The Stamp act of 1765 and the Quartering Act were among the repressive measures of the British government that would eventually spark the Revolution. (Miller 186). The Boston Tea Party and the boycott of English goods were two examples of resistance by the Colonials. Ultimately, the need to finance its vast Empire led to the impositions of taxes upon the relatively prosperous colonies in America. While trade profits had sufficed before, now the colonies were milked for more money and they chafed under this oppressive taxation. What factors led the American colonies to declare their independence from Great Britain? The main factor would seem to be resentment about the oft-quoted ‘taxation without representation’ slogan used by the founding fathers. The colonists considered themselves loyal subjects of the Crown and demanded the same rights and obligations as the subjects in England (Greene & Pole 845). However, they had no representatives in Parliament to make their case. It was in protest of these taxes that the Boston Tea Party was held. Effectively, this became the spark that ignited the Revolution. The economic factor was the most significant because at this point the colonies were economically robust and the settlers felt that their profits were being held down by the requirement to channel all trade with England. The colonies felt that England was taking advantage of them and wanted to break free of her hold. Another factor was the fact that the Colonists were chafing under the rule of the King. They wanted to be independent and desired freedoms and rights similar to those enjoyed by English subjects back home. Such rights were denied them by acts like the Quartering Act which allowed soldiers to live in their homes in violation of the ancient right of English subjects that his home is his inviolable castle where he is King. In other words, they were second-class citizens in their own homes. What were the social, political and economic revolutions that took place in America as a result of the War for Independence? The most significant social and political change was the shift from a Monarchy to a Democratic government (Bill of Rights). Even during the revolution, the Americans were ruled by a representative form of government – embodied in the Congress – drawn from the people to serve the people, in the manner of the Romans and Greeks. Although the republican form of government had flaws that needed ironing out, this system became the model by which other representative governments would later be devised. The revolution also abolished, at least in name, titles of nobility among the Americans. But perhaps the most significant political revolution was the written Constitution the colonies eventually adopted and the federal government based on it. Economically, the Americans were devastated, at least initially. Before, the planters in the South were guaranteed a market for their goods. For example, Virginia could always count on England to buy its cotton and tobacco. Since independence caused a decided cooling of relations between the two nations, many planters were ruined. However, they soon found new markets among the other nations of the world. America also suffered because it could no longer count on England for its manufactured goods. This sparked the new nation’s creativity since they had to learn to fabricate machinery and other products they had previously imported from England. What problems did the United States have after gaining independence? The so-called United States were not so united in the beginning nor were they so united after attaining independence (Feinberg 120). Each individual state had its own agenda and its own prerogatives. For example, Virginia demanded that they sign the peace treaty with England separately from the twelve others. Many states also maintained independent armies and navies to enforce trade and other policies they felt were in their best interests. This lack of unity was alarming because the states became very vulnerable economically and politically. It also emphasized the lack of identity of the states as a coherent polity. Economic woes were made worse by this lack of unity. Different states imposed different tariff levels on each other which created trade imbalances and made the movement of goods between each state more difficult. They were also hobbled by the lack of foreign trade partners who would buy their agricultural products and sell them the industrial goods which they could not manufacture on their own. Politically, the new nation also lacked friends overseas. The French Revolution caused the overthrow of Louis XVI and cost the Americans their only real ally in Europe. Considered a weak nation by the European powers and others, the new country also had an uncertain start in international relations. How did the national government under the Articles of Confederation seem incapable of addressing those problems. First of all, under the Articles of Confederation there was no real national government (US Constitution. net). When the states had a dispute there was no national level arbitration committee like a Supreme Court to handle disputes. The states were essentially independent of each other and it was only when they had common agendas that they could be expected to work together. In fact, the Confederation as it existed was no more than a collection of practically independent states. One example of the national government’s weaknesses concerned revenue. The government such as it was had no authority to levy taxes. It could do little more than beg its member states for money. As a result the country’s army and navy were under-funded and the national government had no money to fund its projects. Moreover, when it asked for money from the member states it was often rebuffed. Because the states were virtually independent of each other, America as a whole did not benefit from the vast diversity of the continent or the wide variety of goods and products that could be found in the country. For example, articles of fur were an expensive luxury in New England even though beaver and other fur-bearing mammals were very numerous in the Mississippi region. What were the major debates during the Constitutional Convention. Two of the major debates were on the form of representative government the nation was to have and how representative slots were to be apportioned in light of slavery. The first debate was on what shape the government should take. A Federal system was agreed upon where the each state, regardless of population, would be represented by two Senators. Another House of Representatives would be formed where there would be proportional representation depending on the population of a state. The compromise of a bicameral Congress protected the interests of both large and small states while at the same time respecting their points of view. In the Senate all states had equal representation while in Congress the larger states had more representatives due to their larger populations. At this time, slaves were a contentious issue as well (Constitutional Rights Foundation. The Constitution and Slavery). The second major debate was about the legality of this practice. The northern states wanted to do away with slavery because it was morally wrong. However, the southern states depended on the slaves for their economic welfare and threatened not to join the union if their right to slavery was abridged. A compromise was reached where the southern states agreed to eventually do away with slavery. Although they never did. How did the Constitution address the failures of the Articles of Confederation? In lieu of the unwieldy Confederation, a new, stronger and more effective Federal system was put into place. The government was stronger and had more authority to assert its will over the states. It also provided for a system of checks and balances to allow the government to operate with less danger of tyranny or mismanagement (US Constitution. net). For example, it was up to the two houses of the Legislative to pass laws but if the President feels that the laws are improper then he can veto them. However, if Congress feels the laws are urgent and the President is abusing his powers they can actually pass laws over his veto. The representative government of America as seen today originated as an effort by the constitution to adhere to the ideal of giving equal representation without hampering smaller states who would be the minority in the face of states with large populations. At the same time the large states were still ensured greater representation. The constitution also provided for the formation of many of today’s Federal institutions to raise to the national level tasks previously the province of individual states. Eventually the Constitution finally brought about the cohesive nation that the founding fathers had envisioned. Should the words, ‘All men are created equal,’ be read today? What do you think Thomas Jefferson meant when he wrote those words in the Declaration of Independence? They should be read exactly as Jefferson meant them. All men are created free and fundamentally equal. We may vary in our talents and abilities. Our subjective faculties may be greater or less than our peers but at the end of the day, all men are fundamentally equal. We should have equal civil and political rights. The color of our skin, our religion or our ethnicity, should never be grounds for discrimination. No one should come forth claiming to be superior, especially not to the point of denying the rights of others (Kennedy 15). We live in a world of strife and conflict where hate and fear are propagated against those who are seen as different. Unfortunately media outlets and the government tend to increase this fear. For example, many laws and government actions after the 9/11 attacks seem geared to discriminate against those of Arab origin. Media also does our African, Asian and Latino countrymen a disservice by casting them in an unflattering light in movies and TV further deepening the discrimination against them A caveat, though, is that in those days blacks and other non-whites were viewed as lesser than whites. Indeed, even Jefferson owned Black slaves. However, this does not detract from the strength of the statement. In those days, as today, this ideal should be fought for until it is finally achieved

Symptoms And Symptoms Of Schizophrenia - 1210 Words

Introduction Schizophrenia Symptoms. Schizophrenia is a chronic and severe mental disorder which is characterized by an inability to distinguish what is real and subsequent abnormal behavior. Literally translating from the Greek skhizein and phrÄ“n meaning ‘split-mind’, schizophrenia is characterized by both positive symptoms, e.g. hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking, and also negative symptoms, e.g. apathy, Anhedonia, and deficits in executive functioning. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) requires for a diagnosis that the individual exhbit at least two dysfunctional symptoms that are active for at least one month (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Causes. The factors†¦show more content†¦Dopamine hypothesis. This theory states that the hyperfunction of brain D2 synapses are linked to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, from observations that antipsychotics, such as Chlorpromazine, have antagonistic effects at dopamine receptors (Carlsson Lindqvist, 1963). Contrastingly stimulants that release dopamine can induce positive symptoms (Lieberman Alvir, 1987). To be clear this hypothesis states that dopamine is not a cause, but rather the by-product of the previously mentioned neurobiochemical dysfunction. Glutamate hypothesis. Alternately this hypothesis states that hypofunctioning via N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (glutamate receptors) in the mesocortical system may contribute to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia (Olney Farber, (1995). Unfortunately these mechanisms of actions are insufficient in explaining both the positive and negative symptoms and subsequent medication based on these mechanisms are not usually able to address both symptoms. Scientists have started to look elsewhere for possible mechanisms that can comprehensively address the major clinical and pathophysiological symptoms; recently the endocannabinoid system (ECS) has been investigated as one such possible mechanism (Zammit, Allebeck, Andreasson, Lundberg, Lewis, 2002; Fergusson, Horwood, Ridder, 2005). The ECS is titled after one of the most wide-spread drug of abuse, Cannabis sativa and the main active